THE MIDDLE EAST FRONT

THE SUEZ-SINAI CAMPAIGN

THE SENUSSI REBELLION:  NOVEMBER 1915 – FEBRUARY 1916

OTTOMAN RAIDS ON THE SUEZ CANAL: JANUARY and AUGUST 1916

Acknowledgements

Suez Canal: researchgate.net Libyan Plateau (detail): awayfromthewesternfront.org Egypt: en wikipedia.org Battle Scene: The Soldier’s Burden, artist unknown, ww1live.wordpress.com Map of Sinai Desert: military.wikia.org Crossing the Sinai Desert: longlongtrail.co.uk Attack at Ismailia: sixbobtourists.com.au Map, Battle of Katia: nzhistory.govt.nz Map, Battle of Romani: (detail) livingwarbirds.com. Anzac Mounted Division: facebook.com, artist unknown Royston: geri.com. artist unknown

    From their entry into the war in October 1914, the Ottomans had their sights on the Suez Canal. At best, they aimed to take over this vital waterway or, at least, to block it at one point or another. This canal was not only of great commercial value to the Allies – particularly to Britain and France – but it was constantly being used to ferry Empire troops (Australians, New Zealanders, Indians and Africans) to the Western Front and other war zones. It was a prime target. With an attack planned for the beginning of 1916, the Ottoman government was anxious to put extra pressure on the British garrison there (already depleted because of the Gallipoli campaign), by organising a widespread revolt against the British occupation of Egypt, beginning in Italian Libya, to the west. If successful, then this could well tip the balance in favour of a successful Turkish attack upon the canal itself. For this purpose, it gained the support of some 5,000 Senussi, a religious order of Beduin tribesmen who were staunchly anti-colonial and skilful in desert fighting. Provided with a generous supply of gold, rifles and artillery – delivered by the German navy – the Senussi Rebellion got under way by mid-November 1915. Given the harsh terrain and climate in which it was fought – providing fresh water was often a serious problem – it was to prove a gruelling contest.

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     At first the Senussi made good progress. Moving along the coast they occupied the vital ports of Sollum, Mersa Matruh and Dabaa, and then moved inland to reinforce their hold on a cluster of oases (shown green on the far map). From these enclaves they were able to conduct raids on British-held territory. Skilled in a war of movement (no trenches here!), and past masters at the setting up of ambushes, they proved a formidable enemy for the British. Engaged at this time in the Gallipoli campaign, they could ony muster an infantry and cavalry brigade, plus a battery of horse artillery. It wasn’t until the beginning of 1916, that this scratch force could be reinforced with camel-mounted troops and light armoured cars. Only then could the Senussi be subdued and then defeated. Afterxa number of inconclusive encounters, including the Battles of Wadi Senba and Wadi Majid in the December, the Senussi were defeated at the Battle of Halazin in the New Year, 25 miles south of their base at Mersa Matruh, and then forced to surrender at Agagia, near Sidi el Barrani, in the February. However, it took some time to isolate and starve into submission the large number of military-based oases scattered across the interior. Finalxvictory came at Siwah in February 1917, and peace terms were agreed in the April. The British signed a peace settlement on the 12th, and Italian-Libya reached a modus vivendi two days later.

     The Senussi Rebellion, as it worked out, was not a major threat to the British, but, as we shall see, they were obliged to employ troops away from the Suez Canal right when it was under attack. And if, at this juncture, it had stirred up a general Arab uprising, the Allies would have faced a serious crisis.

OTTOMANxRAID ON THE SUEZ CANAL: JANUARY- FEBRUARY 1916

    In anticipation that the Senussi Rebellion would stir up a national revolt against the British in Egypt, the Ottomans launched their attack on the Suez Canal in January 1916, aimed at blocking Britain’s vital waterway to the Far East, and stopping, thereby, the ferrying of Empire troops to the Western front and other war zones. Instigated by Djemal Pasha, the Minister of Marine, but under German command, it was a demanding task. His force was only 25,000 strong (compared with double that in the Canal Zone) and the Sinai Desert was a most difficult terrain to cross in the best of weather conditions. He later claimed that he had seen the attack as a reconnaissance in force, but with the hope that, together with the Senussi incursions, it would bring about a large scale Arab revolt and drive the British out of Egypt.

     The raid was launched from Palestine and followed three routes. The ones in the north and south, aiming at Kantara and Suez respectively, were seen as no more than diversionary tactics. They were quite quickly repulsed. The central route was the main thrust, and this aimed at crossing the canal at Ismailia (see map above), and, at the least, doing enough damage to close the waterway to all sizeable shipping. This force was around 20,000 strong, had eight batteries of field artillery, over 1,000 horses, and was equipped with pontoons, built in Germany and smuggled out to Turkey via Bulgaria. It took the best of ten days to cross the Sinai, marching at night in an attempt to conceal its movements. The canal was reached on the 3rd February, and by then their arrival came as no surprise. The feint sorties at Kantara to the north and Suez to the south (26th to 27th January) had given warning of a more powerful attack in the making, and this had been confirmed by British and French reconnaissance aircraft.

    The attack at Ismailia was launched at 3 a.m. and, as was to be expected, the Turkish troops came under heavy fire as they attempted to cross the canal. This came from small arms on the west bank, and heavy artillery from British warships on the Bitter and Timsah Lakes. Three pontoons did manage to reach the west bank, but their crews were quickly killed or captured. Other attacks followed during the day, but none was successful, and the following day Djemal Pasha, to save further loss of life, ordered a retreat back to Beersheeba (see map above). The Ottoman and German casualties were put at 1,300, dead, wounded and missing, and the British (mostly Indians and Gurkhas) at 32 killed and 130 wounded.

OTTOMAN RAID ON THE SUEZ CANAL: AUGUST 1916

    Both sides learnt from this January attack. Be it to defend or attack the Suez Canal, both sides now saw the need to strengthen their hold on the Sinai Desert. The British formed the Egyptian Expeditionary Force (four infantry and two cavalry divisions) and, after improving the wells in the area (vital in this region), began building a railroad along the north coast and a large base around Katia and Oghratina. They saw the need to defend the canal further to the east, putting it outside the range of heavy artillery fire and making an actual crossing much less likely. ThexOttomans, on the other hand, wanted a base closer to the canal from where they could mount a co-ordinated attack, including heavy gunfire, within striking distance of the waterway. In fact, they chose a region close to where the British were working, and at one point (23rd April) – coming upon the enemy by surprise – came very close to wiping out a cavalry brigade that was protecting a party of Royal Engineers. Known as the Battle of Katia, a number of British were killed or captured, and only the speedy arrival of reinforcements avoided a total and humiliating defeat.

    But the majorxattack upon the canal was launched early in August. An Ottoman-German force of some 16,000 men began the crossing of the Sinai Desert in July. Again under German command, its main aim was to occupy the canal’s left bank and employ heavy artillery to impede Allied shipping, but it had first to defeat a defence force which was fully aware of its coming. By then the British, having built the railroad as far as Romani (23 miles east of the canal), had prepared this town against a sizeable attack. A series of redoubts had been built around the eastern and southern outskirts; over 30 howwitzers and field guns had been installed; and the Anzac Mounted Division had taken over the high ground just south of the town to stop the enemy outflanking the town’s defences. The Turks arrived at the oasis town of Katia early in August, and it was from there, on the 3rd, aiming to seize Romani and destroy the newly laid railhead, that they launched their attack. A series of attacks on the town itself, though well conducted, met with little success, but to the south-west, an attempt to outflank the town’s defences (as anticipated) proved more successful. The Australian Light Horse were forced back after a vicious battle at close quarters, and it was not until the morning that the full force of the Anzac Mounted Division, together with infantry reinforcements from Kantara, were able to close the gap and stop the advance. Then, with the successful capture of Mount Royston, to the west of Romani, and the taking of 500 prisoners, the Ottoman line collapsed. By nightfall the invasion force was in general retreat, though it did mount a number of rearguard actions against units in pursuit. Lacking the numbers to make a viable stand, it abandoned its base at Bir el Abd (see map above), and pulled back to El Arish, a city on the Mediterranean coast, close to the Palestinian border. The taking of the Suez Canal had proved a bridge too far. Egypt was secured from further attack. However, the Turks had forced the British to substantially increase their military presence in Egypt and that was a worthy achievement. The Ottoman-German casualties are estimated at 5,200, and 4,000 were taken prisoner. Allied loses are put at 1,130, with more than half borne by the Anzac Mounted Division.

    Incidentally, the massivexdune called “Mount Royston” was named after the Colonel of the 12th Light Horse, John Robinson Royston (1860-1942), a charismatic figure who was known by his men as “Galloping Jack”. A South African by birth, he fought in the Zulu war of 1879 and served with distinction in both Boer Wars. His leadership of Australian troops began in 1901, when he became commander of the 5th and 6th contingents of the Western Australian Mounted Infantry. At the Battle of Romani, aged 52, he became a light horse legend, skilfully galloping around the battlefield with astounding courage and energy. On retirement he became a cattle farmer in Natal. When he died in Durban, his wife wrote that “he loved his Australians to the last”.

    The Battle of Romani virtually marked the end of Turkish threats to the Suez Canal. With the vital waterway now secure, the Egyptian Expeditionary Force launched an invasion of the Sinai Desert. It met with strong opposition, but it had occupied the peninsula by the end of the year. However, as we shall see, an attempt to invade Palestine was to be twice repulsed at Gaza. In fact, it was not until November 1917 that, under new leadership, the expeditionary force overran this stronghold (The Third Battle of Gaza), and advanced into Palestine, aiming to capture Jerusalem and Damascus beyond.

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