THE MIDDLE EAST FRONT – SEVEN CAMPAIGNS (LISTED BELOW)

OTTOMANS ENTER WAR:  OCTOBER 1914 - OCTOBER 1918

THE SEVEN CAMPAIGNS (LISTED BELOW WITH ACCESS)

Acknowledgements

Map-Ottoman Empire: slideplayer Diagram: en.widkipedia.com Map-Campaigns: nzhistory.govt.nz Middle East: medium. com Collage: Gallipoli: amazon.uk Mesopotamia: bookauthentisity.org Caucasus: worthpoint.com Suez Canal: amazon.co.uk Sinai: youtube.com Arab Revolt: youtube.com Caucasus (detail): youtube.com

    On the eve of the First World War the Ottoman Empire was in a parlous state, a shadow of its former self territorially (see map), and very close to economic collapse. It was, indeed, “the sick man of Europe”. Not surprisingly, there was much debate and dispute over the course it should take should war break out. It was eventually decided – by no means unanimously – that to remain neutral was not an option. The Empire would decline even further economically, and would end up at the mercy of the victor, whichever Bloc that might be. The need, strange to relate, was to enter the war and to receive the benefits to be had from an alliance with a major industrial power. If that power were victorious then the Empire’s future was surely secured. If it were not, then at least the Empire would be considered in the postwar settlement. It was a possible – albeit a tentative means – of preserving its existence.


     Which Bloc to join (if, indeed, either were interested) was not so contentious. For many years, and particularly from the beginning of the century, Prussian military missions had assisted in the modernization of the Ottoman army, be it in general training or within the command structure itself. A close relationship had been developed, thereby, between the two armed forces. Furthermore, the Germans had provided both economic and financial assistance in various projects within the Ottoman Empire, particularly in the construction of the Baghdad Railway (begun in 1888). And, more to the point, the Ottomans generally considered that the Central Powers would win the war. It would be a real advantage to be on the winning side! As far as the Blocs were concerned, the Entente was not interested. Russia in particular was opposed to having such an “ally” on its doorstep, in the path of its own plans of expansion. Furthermore, it had a long and bitter catalogue of friction with the Ottomans over their control of the Bosphorus and the Dardanelles. And the Central Powers were also understandably concerned at taking on board so weak a nation. However, in accordance with their Drang Nachosten policy (i.e. Thrust towards the East), the Germans did see some advantage. This would mean the closure of the Turkish Straits to Russian shipping, a vital supply line for war munitions. And in the long term, an alliance with the Ottoman Empire would provide easy access not only to its African colonies – come victory – but also to valuable markets in the Far East, particularly in India.


OTTOMANS ENTER WAR IN SUPPORT OF THE CENTRAL POWERS – OCT 1914


     The result was a secret treaty between the two Empires in August 1914. In a European war, the Ottomans would support the Central Powers. This they did, but not without a significant delay, much to the annoyance and frustration of the Germans. Before entering the war the Ottomans had work to do. They needed time to mobilize – a lengthy process given the poor state of the country’s rail network; to secure an alliance with their neighbour Bulgaria; and to strengthen their defences along the Turkish Straits. It was not, in fact, until late October that they suddenly, without warning, launched a naval bombardment upon Russian ports in the Black Sea and opened up the Caucasus Campaign.


     But the decision of the Ottoman Empire to enter the war in support of the Central Powers in October 1914, not only opened up the Caucasus Campaign against the Russian Empire – a formidable undertaking in itself – but also produced a number of other conflicts in the Middle East. Given the Ottomans’ reputation as an inferior fighting force – it had just suffered a catastrophic defeat in the First Baltic War of 1912-1913 – the Allies were not unduly alarmed, but, in fact, the Ottomans were destined to make a formidable contribution to the German cause. They not only gave direct support on the Eastern Front, but by opening up conflicts in Mesopotamia and Palestine they also reduced Britain’s contribution to the Western Front at a time when maximum support was needed. These desert encounters might well be seen as “sideshows”, but they were costly in both men and material, and required a formidable amount of logistical support. And, in addition, the Allied invasion of Gallipoli in February 1915, an attempt to knock the Ottoman Empire out of the war, ended in a complete and costly failure, due in large part to the determination of the Ottomans, stubbornly fighting in defence of their homeland.x

WW1-1914-1918-WW1-1914-1918-WW1-1914-1918-WW1-1914-1918-WW1-1914-1918-WW1

    And in addition to these inevitable commitments on seven fronts, at one time or another the Ottomans helped to stabilize the situation in Galicia; assisted in the occupation of Romania; sent troops to the Yemen and Macedonia (to support the Bulgarian army) and, for a time, had troops serving on the Western Front. But, as we shall see, it was the opening offensive, the Caucasus Campaign, where some of the toughest and bloodiest battles of the Middle Eastern Front were to be fought.

To go back to the Dateline, click HERE

CLICK HERE



As the map shows, there were seven major campaigns in the Middle East. To access these, simply click on the title and follow the events.


The Caucasus Campaign,  Oct 1914 - Oct 1917


The Gallipoli Campaign,  Feb 1915 - Jan 1916


The Mesopotamian Campaign,  Nov 1914 - Nov 1918


The Persian Campaign,  Jun 1916 - July 1921


The Suez-Sinai Campaign,  May 1916 - April 1917  


Sinai-Palestine Campaign,  Oct 1917 - Oct 1918


The Arab Revolt,  June 1916 - Oct 1918