xxxxxFrom the outset of the Crimean War, the capture of the Russian naval base of Sevastopol was the main objective of the Allies - Britain, France and the Ottoman Empire. In September 1854 the Russians attempted to stop the Allies reaching the city by the Battle of Alma River. When this failed and the Allies laid siege to the naval base, they then tried, unsuccessfully, to raise the siege by the Battles of Balaclava and Inkerman. But although the Allied forces managed to encircle Sevastopol in October 1854, they failed to take the city for almost a year, due to the incompetence of their commanders and the stout resistance put up by the Russian garrison. Eventually the French managed to capture the fort of Mamelon and the Malakhov defence line in the south-east of the city. Then a sustained bombardment of the base and a French victory at the Battle of Tchernaya virtually put an end to Russian resistance. The city was captured in September 1855, but the Russians only agreed to a peace settlement after Austria had threatened to join in the war against them. As we shall see, the Treaty of Paris completed its work in March 1856, but the criticism of the conduct of the war rumbled on, centred around the poor quality of military leadership and the almost total lack of medical care for the sick and wounded. In Britain, this led to a reorganisation of military nursing services, initiated by nurse Florence Nightingale in 1855 and continued after her war-time service.

THE CRIMEAN WAR 1853 - 1856

THE SIEGE OF SEVASTOPOL 1854 - 1855  (Va)

Acknowledgements

Map (Crimea): licensed under Creative Commons – https://britlitwiki.wikispares.com. Sevastopol: detail, by the Russian painter Franz Roubaud (1856-1928), 1904 – Panorama Museum, Sevastopol, Russian Federation.

xxxxxFrom the outset of the Crimean War the prime objective of the Allies had been the capture of Sevastopol, a naval base in the south of the peninsula which was the headquarters of the Russian navy and the home of the Russian fleet. As we have seen, it was in September 1854 that an Anglo-French force, having landed at Eupatoria, had advanced on Sevastopol. Just north of the city, however, it was confronted by a Russian army and forced into the Battle of Alma River. The allies eventually put the Russians to flight, but they failed to pursue the enemy without delay, and by the time they arrived at Sevastopol, defences had been put in place and they were forced to lay siege to the city.


xxxxxThe two major engagements which took place later in that year, the Battles of Balaclava and Inkerman, were both attempts by the Russians to break the allied stranglehold on Sevastopol. They both failed, but in the meantime, however, the Allies encountered great difficulty in breaching the city’s defences. Their lines did not completely encircle the naval base, and thus the Russians were able to send in supplies and reinforcements. Furthermore, under the supervision of their principal engineer, Colonel Eduard Todleben, the city’s fortifications were substantially strengthened. At the beginning of 1855 Sardinia-Piedmont entered the war against Russia, and this added 10,000 troops to the allied cause - making a total of 60,000 - but despite bombardment from land and sea, the Russian garrison in Sevastopol continued to hold out.



xxxxxMeanwhile the hardship endured by the allied troops surrounding the city grew worse with the coming of winter in November 1854. The commanders had made little if any provision for these harsh conditions and, in addition, there was a serious lack of transport to bring up food supplies. As a result, the men suffered months of near starvation, and many died from sickness and exposure. It was not, in fact, until June 1855 that the French managed to capture the outlying fort of Mamelon and seize the Malakhov line, a major defensive complex in the south-east of the city. This break-through, followed by a sustained bombardment of the base and a French victory at the Battle of Tchernaya - the last Russian attempt to raise the siege - virtually put an end to Russian resistance. On the 8th September, after an assault lasting three days, the city fell. The Russians sank their ships in the harbour, blew up their fortifications, and made their getaway, leaving their wounded behind. Save for a few skirmishes, the war was over.


xxxxxThe Russians finally accepted draft peace proposals in the New Year, but only agreed to these terms after Austria had threatened to enter the war against them. As we shall see, the Treaty of Paris completed its work in March 1856, but criticism of the conduct of the war rumbled on. The courage and steadfastness of the troops on both sides of the conflict were recognised, but the strategic and tactical conduct of the war raised questions over the quality of military leadership, particularly in the matter of command, logistics and supply. And in the allied camp there was also deep concern over the losses sustained, the majority caused by disease and the almost total lack of medical care for the sick and the wounded. In Britain, as we shall see, this led to a thorough reorganisation of military nursing services, initiated by nurse Florence Nightingale in 1855 and continued following her war-time service at Scutari.


xxxxxIncidentally, the fighting in the Crimean War was confined almost exclusively to the peninsula, but secondary operations were carried out in the Baltic Sea and in the Caucasus, where the Russians won a number of victories over the Turks. ……


xxxxx…… In 1856, just before the end of the Crimean War, Queen Victoria instituted the Victoria Cross, the highest decoration for conspicuous courage in the presence of the enemy. Originally the bronze medal was cast from Russian guns captured after the fall of Sevastopol. Made in the shape of a Maltese cross and with a crimson ribbon, it depicts a lion on a crown and bears the words “For Valour”. Only some 1,400 crosses have been awarded since it was instituted, and among the first recipients were six soldiers who fought at the Battle of Alma River. In 1902 it was decreed that the honour could be awarded posthumously. The George Cross, a similar decoration for civilians, was instituted by King George VI at the beginning of the Second World War. ……


xxxxx…… The English industrialist William Armstrong (1810-1900), who developed a highly successful hydraulic crane in the 1840s, turned to the manufacture of armaments after the Crimean War. Learning of the difficulty experienced in moving the heavy field guns during the conflict, he designed an artillery piece (the Armstrong Gun) which was easier to move, was much more accurate, and had a longer range. These improvements earned him a knighthood in 1859, and the gun was sold to both sides when the American Civil War broke out two years later. ……


xxxxx…… The great Russian writer Leo Tolstoy, famous for his novels War and Peace and Anna Karenina, served for a time in the Crimean War, and in 1856 produced three tales about the siege of Sevastopol.

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