ARGENTINA GAINS ITS INDEPENDENCE 1810

xxxxxAs we have seen, the Italian Sebastian Cabot was one of the first navigators to explore Argentina in 1526. The Spanish soldier Pedro de Mendoza followed ten years later, making the first settlement at Buenos Aires, and soon after this Spanish colonists began arriving from the Pacific coast. By the end of the century ten or more cities had been established. In 1776 Buenos Aires became the capital of the viceroyalty of La Plata, an area also covering Uruguay, Paraguay and southern Bolivia. The opportunity to gain independence came in 1810 with the overthrow of the Spanish king, Ferdinand VII, by Napoleon. A junta was formed in the name of the deposed king, but it had little popular support. An independence movement, led by Manuel Belgrano and José de San Martin, quickly gathered strength, and won independence for Argentina in July 1816. After many years of turmoil a federal government was established, but it was not until 1862 that the province of Buenos Aires took its place in the federation.

ARGENTINA GAINS ITS INDEPENDENCE

1810 - 1816 (G3c)

Acknowledgements

Map (La Plata): from history.howstuffworks.com. Belgrano: detail, by the French artist François Casimir Carbonnier (1787-1873), 1815 – The Municipal Museum of Visual Arts, San Martin, Olavarria, Argentina. Map (Paraguay): by courtesy of theodora.com/maps. Map (Chile): from https://geography.howstuffworks.com/south-america. San Martin: probably by the Belgian painter Jean Baptiste Madou (1796-1877), 1827/9 – National History Museum, Santiago, Chile. O’Higgins: detail, by the Afro-Peruvian painter José Gil de Castro (1785-1841) – Military Geographical Institute, Santiago, Chile. Crossing Andes: by the Spanish painter Julio Vila y Prades (1873-1930) – Museum of Chilean Military History, Santiago.

xxxxxAs we have seen, the Italian Sebastian Cabot was one of the first navigators to explore Argentina. In 1526, employed by the Spanish, he sailed up the Parana and Paraguay rivers, but when his promises of finding silver came to nothing, the Spanish crown showed no interest in the area. Ten years later a settlement was established at Buenos Aires by the Spanish soldier Pedro de Mendoza, but after five years this was abandoned because of constant Indian attacks. Soon after this, however, Spanish colonists began crossing into Argentina from the Pacific coast, and by the end of the century ten or more cities had been established, including Santa Fe in 1573. Also among this number was Buenos Aires, resettled in 1580. Because of its commanding position as an east-coast port, in 1776 this became the capital of the Viceroyalty of La Plata, an area covering not only Argentina, but also Uruguay, Paraguay and southern Bolivia.

xxxxxIronically enough, it was in that year, 1776, that the American colonies declared their independence and went on to win it from Britain. Then came the French Revolution and the successful fight for freedom in the French colony of Saint Domingue (Haiti), led by Toussaint Louverture in 1791. Such events would not have gone unnoticed in Argentina or, indeed, the other colonial lands in South America. But it was the coming of the Napoleonic Wars which marked the turning point. In 1806 the British navy attacked and occupied Buenos Aires but, after a short time, was ably expelled by the local militia, as was an expeditionary force sent the following year. This did a great deal to bolster the confidence of the colonists and awake their patriotic spirit.

xxxxxBut it was the overthrow of the Spanish king, Ferdinand VII, a year later - replaced by Napoleon’s brother Joseph Bonaparte - that set the revolutionary wheels in motion. InxMay 1810 a rebellion broke out in Buenos Aires. A junta was eventually appointed to rule in the name of the deposed king, but it lacked popular support. As a result, an independence movement, led by the military leaders Manuel Belgrano (1770-1820) (illustrated) and José de San Martin, quickly grew in strength. Over the next five years the government and its forces were toppled and independence was proclaimed in July 1816. However, it was not until 1842 that Spain officially acknowledged the independence of Argentina.

xxxxxAs is often the case, the declaration of independence was followed by a bitter struggle for power between those who favoured a centralised form of government, based on Buenos Aires, and those seeking a federal constitution. The next ten years in particular saw a complete break down of law and order, made the worse by a war with Brazil in 1825 to 1827, successful though it proved to be. Thexfederalists eventually won but, in the meantime, the country had to endure seventeen years of dictatorship (1835-1852) by the military and political leader Juan Manuel de Rosas (1793-1877). And it was not until 1862 that Buenos Aires took its place as a province in the federal structure.

Including:

Independence Movements

in Paraguay and Chile,

Bernado O’Higgins and

José de San Martin

xxxxxBut when Argentina began its fight for independence in 1810, the other members of the Viceroy of La Plata - Paraguay, Uruguay and Bolivia (then part of Peru) - would have none of it. They wanted independence, but on their own terms. Paraguay was the first to go its own way. The colony had been formed following the arrival of the Spanish soldier Pedro de Mendoza in the 16th century. Whenxhe abandoned Buenos Aires in 1541, one of his lieutenants, Domingo Martínez de Irala (c1509-c1556) had travelled a thousand miles up the Plata and Paraguay rivers and founded Asuncion, the first permanent Spanish settlement in the interior of South America. From this base, the site of his capital, he had set about founding the colony of Paraguay.

xxxxxAs we have seen, in 1776 Paraguay become part of the Viceroyalty of La Plata. This arrangement, imposed by Spain, alarmed the colony’s leaders, who resented the growing importance of Buenos Aires, and feared that they would be swallowed up by their larger neighbour. Thus when Argentina began its fight for independence in 1810, Paraguay refused to be part of it. This appeared to seal the colony’s fate, but when the Argentine general Manuel Belgrano launched an invasion the following year, his forces were repulsed by a people determined to save their “nation”. Then in May of that year, led by two leaders of the militia, Pedro Juan Cabellero and Fulgencio Yegros, they deposed the governor and declared their own independence. BuenosxAires then sent an envoy to Asuncion to threaten or bribe the colony into submission, but a new strong man, José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia (1766-1840) stood his ground, and by a congress convened in October 1813 Paraguay was officially confirmed as an independent republic. Francia took office as the country’s dictator in 1814 and ruled with an iron fist until 1840. Similar despots followed, one of whom, as we shall see, was to provoke a war with no less than three of his neighbours (the War of the Triple Alliance) in 1865 (Va).

xxxxxWhen Argentina gained its independence in 1816, the other members of the Viceroy of La Plata would have none of it. They wanted freedom on their own terms. Paraguay was the first to go its own way. The colony had been founded by one of Mendoza’s lieutenants in the early 1540s after travelling 1000 miles up the Plata and Paraguay rivers. He established Asuncion as the centre of the colony of Paraguay. In 1776 it was administered by Buenos Aires, but when the fight for independence began in 1810, Paraguay refused to be part of it. The Argentine general Belgrano led an invasion, but this was repulsed and in October 1813 a new strong man, Jose Gaspar Rodriguez de Francia declared Paraguay’s independence. He ruled the country as a dictator until 1840, and similar despots then followed, one of whom, as we shall see, was to provoke a war with no less than three of his neighbours in 1865 (Vb).

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xxxxxThe Spanish soldier Diego de Almagro, a one-time friend of Francesco Pizarro (the conqueror of the Inca Empire) explored Chile in 1535. He found the Indians hostile and the land of little value. After his death, Pizarro sent Pedro de Valdivia to colonize the region, and by 1550 he had established a number of settlements, including Santiago and Concepcion. By the 1560s the governor Don Garcia Hurtado de Mendoza, had subdued most of the region, but it took some years before the colony took root. Like Argentina, its fight for independence began in 1810, triggered off by events in Spain. It was led by the Chilean-born Bernado O’Higgins. In 1813 he was defeated by the royalists at Rancagua and had to escape with his army into Argentina. Here, however, he joined forces with the patriot José de San Martin, and in 1817, having made the hazard crossing over the Andes, they defeated the Spanish at Chacabuco and occupied Santiago. Independence was conformed after a victory at Maipu the following year. O’Higgins became the country’s dictator, but was deposed in 1823, and went to live in Peru. As we shall see (1824 G4), San Martin went on to invade Peru, and it was here that he met another revolutionary leader, Simon Bolivar, the “Liberator” of Columbia, Venezuela, Ecuador and Bolivia - in addition to Peru.

xxxxxItxwas in 1535 that the Spanish soldier Diego de Almagro (c1475-1538), then a close friend of the conqueror of the Inca Empire Francesco Pizarro, explored the area now known as Chile. Unlike Peru he found the native Indians extremely hostile and the country lacking in precious minerals. Afterxhis death, Pizarro sent Pedro de Valdivia (c1500-1553) to colonise the region. He established a number of settlements, including Santiago in 1541, but Concepcion, further south, was not founded until 1550. Then three years later the local Indians, the Araucanians, rose in revolt and remained a constant threat to the peace of the colony until the late 19th century.

xxxxxHowever, by the 1560s much of the country had been subdued under the governorship of Don Garcia Hurtado de Mendoza, and Spanish settlers began to arrive, though never in large numbers. Because there was little mineral wealth, society was very largely based on agriculture, and this attracted little interest in Spain itself. By the end of the colonial period the population, which numbered around 500,000, was mostly made up of Mestizos (mixed Indian and European) and Creoles (Chilean born Spaniards), with only 20,000 pure Spaniards (known as “peninsulares”).

xxxxxAlthough the colony lived a somewhat isolated existence, it was influenced, like the other colonial lands, by freedom struggles overseas. As in Argentina, its fight for independence began in 1810, triggered off by events in Spain. In that year the Creoles formed a junta in Santiago aimed at self-government, and a congress was established the following year. In the struggle that ensued, a leading part was played by the Chilean-born Bernardo O’Higgins (1778-1842), an illegitimate son of Ambrosio O’Higgins, an Irish-born Spaniard who had served as captain general of Chile and viceroy of Peru. Bernardo was educated in England and Spain, and returned to Chile in 1802. Herexhe joined the national revolt, later led by José Miguel Carrera (1785-1821), and was made commander of the patriot army in 1813. Thexfollowing year, after making an heroic defence of the city of Rancagua, he was defeated by royalist troops in bitter street fighting, and forced to take the remnants of his army over the Andes into Argentina.

xxxxxInxthe city of Mendoza, however, he joined up with the revolutionary leader José de San Martin. Afterxtwo years planning the invasion, their combined forces, some 5,000 strong, crossed into Chile - an epic mountain journey - and defeated the Spanish on the hill of Chacabuco, just outside Santiago, in February 1817. The small Spanish force, only numbering 1500, drove back the contingent led by O’Higgins, but a successful charge against the Spanish cavalry, commanded by San Martin, gave the Chilean force time to regroup. It then attacked the flank of the royalist forces and put them to flight. Santiago was taken a few days later. InxMarch the following year San Martin’s army suffered a serious defeat at Cancha-Rayada, but a resounding victory at Maipu a month later confirmed the success of the revolution.

xxxxxO’Higgins was made supreme director of Chile in 1817, having seen off a challenge from his rival Carrera, and in 1818 proclaimed the country’s independence - though Royalist forces were not expelled from all parts of the country until 1826. Taking all power into his own hands, he did attempt to introduce some liberal reforms, but these alienated the Roman Catholics and the landed aristocracy. He was deposed in 1823 and, leaving Chile, spent the rest of his life in Peru.

xxxxxAfter the Battle of Chacabuco, José de San Martin was offered the leadership of the new, independent Chile, but he declined in favour of O’Higgins. As we shall see (1824 G4), San Martin was anxious to organise a sea invasion of Peru, Spain’s strongest and richest possession on the continent. And also bent on gaining freedom for that country was the so called Latin American “Liberator” Simon Bolivar, a man who, apart from Peru, was to play an important part in the independent movements in Columbia, Venezuela, Ecuador and Bolivia.

xxxxxIncidentally, the crossing of the Andes in January 1817 by José de San Martin and his army - accompanied by O’Higgins and his exiled Chileans - is regarded as one of great feats of military history, comparable to the crossing of the Alps by Hannibal and Napoleon. In bitterly cold temperatures, the Argentine patriot led some 5,000 men over treacherous passes - some 12,000 ft high and many guarded by royalist forces. About 2,000 men were lost during the 20-day march, but by skilful use of the terrain he reached Chile earlier than expected on the 8th February, and four days later surprised and defeated the royalists at Chacabuco.